Reports in Engineering and Science
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Engineers and scientists write longer documents such as reports for many reasons, including the documentation of experiments and designs. As an engineer or scientist working on the design of an airplane seat, you might write several longer documents. One formal document might propose a new design for the seat. A second formal document might update the progress on the construction of a test seat. Yet another formal document might present tests performed on the design. Still another formal document would assess whether the new design should replace the existing design. In this last document, you would combine elements from all the previous documents. Note that this last document might appear as a research article, which is a special kind of formal report for a research audience.
For reference, this discussion includes a sample research report [Bassett, 1998] from a technical writing course. Also available is a short discussion of laboratory reports, design reports, progress reports, and theses and dissertations. Note that differences in format will likely occur between the sample reports included here and the reports you are expected to write for your own classes. Nonetheless, these samples should provide you general guidelines for crafting the assignments in your own courses. Another aid to help you is a report checklist that you can use during the revision stage of your report writing. What distinguishes a formal document from an informal reporting of information? The answer lies not in the topics of formal documents, but in the expectations of the audiences for formal reports. In a formal document, the audience expects a methodical presentation of the subject that includes summaries of important points as well as appendices on tangential and secondary points. Note that the readers for a formal document are often two or more distinct audiences. These distinct audiences include professionals specializing in the document's subject matter, professionals not specializing in the report's subject matter, and managers overseeing the report's subject matter. |
Audiences have specific expectations for the organization of a report. Format distinguishes formal documents from an informal reporting of information. A well-crafted formal document is formatted such that the document's information is readily accessible to all the audiences. For that reason, formal documents are split into different sections. One way to group these sections is in terms of the front matter, main text, and back matter. The front matter presents preliminary information for the document. In doing so, the front matter tries to orient all intended audiences to what the document contains. The text portion of the formal document is the document's "story" and contains the introduction, discussion, and conclusion of the report. The text delivers a methodical explanation of the document's work to the document's primary audience. The document's back matter portion, which contains the appendices, glossary, and references, serves to provide secondary information to all readers as well as primary information to secondary readers.
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Front Matter
The front matter presents preliminary information for the document. In doing so, the front matter tries to orient all intended audiences to what the document contains. Common sections in the front matter include a cover page, a title page, a contents page, and a summary. In some formats, the summary is positioned on the title page.
Front Cover. The front cover of a formal document is important. The front cover is what people see first. When the report sits flat on a desk, the front cover is in view. Therefore, the front cover should contain the report's title and the author's name. Because documents are often revised and republished, the front cover should also contain the date of publication. The front cover has no page number. Space the title, name, and date to achieve a nice balance on the page. If possible, type the title in a larger font size than the name and date. Use initial capitals for the title.
Title Page. The title page for a formal document often contains the same information as is on the cover. In some formats, there is a summary included. Most often, because of space restrictions, that summary is descriptive (more like a table of contents in paragraph form). Sometimes, though, this initial summary is informative and geared toward the technical audience of the report. In such situations, that summary is often named an "Abstract." Consult with your instructor to find out what kind of summary, if any, should be on this page. Note that the title page is numbered "i" (the actual presence of a page number on the first page is optional).
Contents Page. The table of contents includes the names of all the headings and subheadings for the main text. In addition, the table of contents includes names of all headings (but not subheadings) in the front matter and back matter. For instance, the contents page includes listings for the the appendices (including appendix titles), the glossary, and the references.
Summary. Perhaps no term in engineering writing is as confusing as the term "summary." In general there are two types of summaries: descriptive summaries and informative summaries. A descriptive summary describes what kind of information is in the report; it is a table of contents in paragraph form. An informative summary is a synopsis of the text portion of the report; it is analogous to a baseball boxscore. Unfortunately, few people use these terms to name the summaries in reports. The names you're likely to run into are "abstract," "executive summary," and plain old "summary."
An "abstract" usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a technical audience, and depending on its length can be either descriptive, informative, or a combination of both. As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically descriptive and longer abstracts are typically informative. Abstracts generally do not include illustrations. Sometimes the word "abstract" is proceeded by the word "descriptive," which is usually a clue that you should write a descriptive summary written to a technical audience. Other times the word "abstract" is proceeded by the word "technical," which is usually a clue that an informative summary written to a technical audience is called for.
An "executive summary"is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an informative summary written to a management audience. Because it is informative, it includes the most important results and conclusions of the document. Because it is written to a management audience, it includes enough background for the manager to understand those results and conclusions. Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it quickly and garner what happened in the report. Whether it contains illustrations or not depends on the format.
An "executive summary"is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an informative summary written to a management audience. Because it is informative, it includes the most important results and conclusions of the document. Because it is written to a management audience, it includes enough background for the manager to understand those results and conclusions. Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it quickly and garner what happened in the report. Whether it contains illustrations or not depends on the format.
The catch-all term "summary" can be most anything--a descriptive summary, an informative summary, a summary with illustrations, a summary without. So how do you proceed if a company, laboratory, or professor asks you to write a "summary" for a formal report? Well, the best thing to do is to look at examples of summaries in previous reports for that company, laboratory, or professor. In formatting the main summary of your report, treat the name ("Abstract," "Executive Summary," or whatever your instructor prescribes) as a major heading. If illustrations are allowed, number them using the abbreviation of the summary's title. For instance, if the summary is named an "Executive Summary," number the illustrations ES-1, ES-2, and so on. Number the equations in the same way. For a more detailed discussion of summaries, see pages 21-27 of The Craft of Scientific Writing.
Front Cover. The front cover of a formal document is important. The front cover is what people see first. When the report sits flat on a desk, the front cover is in view. Therefore, the front cover should contain the report's title and the author's name. Because documents are often revised and republished, the front cover should also contain the date of publication. The front cover has no page number. Space the title, name, and date to achieve a nice balance on the page. If possible, type the title in a larger font size than the name and date. Use initial capitals for the title.
Title Page. The title page for a formal document often contains the same information as is on the cover. In some formats, there is a summary included. Most often, because of space restrictions, that summary is descriptive (more like a table of contents in paragraph form). Sometimes, though, this initial summary is informative and geared toward the technical audience of the report. In such situations, that summary is often named an "Abstract." Consult with your instructor to find out what kind of summary, if any, should be on this page. Note that the title page is numbered "i" (the actual presence of a page number on the first page is optional).
Contents Page. The table of contents includes the names of all the headings and subheadings for the main text. In addition, the table of contents includes names of all headings (but not subheadings) in the front matter and back matter. For instance, the contents page includes listings for the the appendices (including appendix titles), the glossary, and the references.
Summary. Perhaps no term in engineering writing is as confusing as the term "summary." In general there are two types of summaries: descriptive summaries and informative summaries. A descriptive summary describes what kind of information is in the report; it is a table of contents in paragraph form. An informative summary is a synopsis of the text portion of the report; it is analogous to a baseball boxscore. Unfortunately, few people use these terms to name the summaries in reports. The names you're likely to run into are "abstract," "executive summary," and plain old "summary."
An "abstract" usually, but not always, refers to a summary written to a technical audience, and depending on its length can be either descriptive, informative, or a combination of both. As you might imagine, short abstracts are typically descriptive and longer abstracts are typically informative. Abstracts generally do not include illustrations. Sometimes the word "abstract" is proceeded by the word "descriptive," which is usually a clue that you should write a descriptive summary written to a technical audience. Other times the word "abstract" is proceeded by the word "technical," which is usually a clue that an informative summary written to a technical audience is called for.
An "executive summary"is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an informative summary written to a management audience. Because it is informative, it includes the most important results and conclusions of the document. Because it is written to a management audience, it includes enough background for the manager to understand those results and conclusions. Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it quickly and garner what happened in the report. Whether it contains illustrations or not depends on the format.
An "executive summary"is the most consistently defined term-it refers to an informative summary written to a management audience. Because it is informative, it includes the most important results and conclusions of the document. Because it is written to a management audience, it includes enough background for the manager to understand those results and conclusions. Stylistically, it is tailored so that a manager can read it quickly and garner what happened in the report. Whether it contains illustrations or not depends on the format.
The catch-all term "summary" can be most anything--a descriptive summary, an informative summary, a summary with illustrations, a summary without. So how do you proceed if a company, laboratory, or professor asks you to write a "summary" for a formal report? Well, the best thing to do is to look at examples of summaries in previous reports for that company, laboratory, or professor. In formatting the main summary of your report, treat the name ("Abstract," "Executive Summary," or whatever your instructor prescribes) as a major heading. If illustrations are allowed, number them using the abbreviation of the summary's title. For instance, if the summary is named an "Executive Summary," number the illustrations ES-1, ES-2, and so on. Number the equations in the same way. For a more detailed discussion of summaries, see pages 21-27 of The Craft of Scientific Writing.
Main Text
The text portion of your formal document contains the introduction, discussion, and conclusion of your report. Begin all major headings ("Introduction," for example) on a new page. Use Arabic numerals for numbering pages of the text and begin the first page of your text as page 1. For more discussion about the structure of formal documents, see Lesson 7 of The Craft of Scientific Writing.
Introduction.The introduction of a report prepares readers for understanding the discussion of the document. Like the title and summary, the introduction is written for the widest audience possible. For more discussion about introductions, see pages 114-121 in The Craft of Scientific Writing.
Discussion.The discussion or middle is the story of your work. You do not necessarily present results in the order that you found them, but in the order that is easiest for your readers to understand them. In your discussion, you not only present results, but you also evaluate those results. Note that you do not generally use the word "Discussion" as the title for the major headings in this part of the document. Rather, you choose titles that reflect the content of the sections.
Conclusion.The conclusion section analyzes for the most important results from the discussion and evaluates those results in the context of the entire work. In your conclusion, you often make recommendations based on those evaluations. The conclusion is much like an informative summary except for one thing-in the conclusion, you are writing to an audience who has read your report. Note that you do not necessarily have to use the word "Conclusion" as the title for this section. Depending on the situation, you might for example choose "Conclusions and Recommendations." In still other situations, your conclusion might span two sections.
Introduction.The introduction of a report prepares readers for understanding the discussion of the document. Like the title and summary, the introduction is written for the widest audience possible. For more discussion about introductions, see pages 114-121 in The Craft of Scientific Writing.
Discussion.The discussion or middle is the story of your work. You do not necessarily present results in the order that you found them, but in the order that is easiest for your readers to understand them. In your discussion, you not only present results, but you also evaluate those results. Note that you do not generally use the word "Discussion" as the title for the major headings in this part of the document. Rather, you choose titles that reflect the content of the sections.
Conclusion.The conclusion section analyzes for the most important results from the discussion and evaluates those results in the context of the entire work. In your conclusion, you often make recommendations based on those evaluations. The conclusion is much like an informative summary except for one thing-in the conclusion, you are writing to an audience who has read your report. Note that you do not necessarily have to use the word "Conclusion" as the title for this section. Depending on the situation, you might for example choose "Conclusions and Recommendations." In still other situations, your conclusion might span two sections.
Back Matter
The back matter portion of your formal document contains your appendices, glossary, and references. The back matter portion usually begins on the page following the conclusion. Continue numbering back matter pages with Arabic numerals. In other words, if the conclusion section ends on page 16, the first appendix will begin on page 17.
Appendices. Use appendices to present supplemental information for secondary readers. When the occasion arises in the text, refer readers to information in the appendix. For example:
Appendices. Use appendices to present supplemental information for secondary readers. When the occasion arises in the text, refer readers to information in the appendix. For example:
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This section compares three software pages to run tests on Hemodyne's blood analyzer. Hemodyne's blood analyzer performs test for such diseases as syphilis, tuberculosis, and the AIDS virus. The analyzer has a complex design, which is discussed in Appendix B. The three software packages considered in this report are...
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Treat each appendix as a major heading. If you have only appendix, call it the "Appendix." If you have more than one appendix, number the appendices with letters: Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on. As with all major headings, skip three returns from the top margin and center the appendix name and title. Illustrations in appendices are numbered as follows. In both a single appendix and in an Appendix A, figures and tables are numbered A-1, A-2, and so on. Equations in Appendix A are numbered in the same way. In an Appendix B, illustrations and equations follow a B sequence.
Glossary. Use a glossary to define terms for secondary readers. Arrange terms in alphabetical order. Use italics or underlines to key readers to terms that the glossary will define. Footnote the first italicized or underlined term in the text and key readers to the location of glossary, where that term and all future underlined or italicized terms will be defined. Use a reverse indent for each definition and treat each definition as a separate paragraph.
References. Use a reference page to list alphabetically the references of your report. If you used numbers for the reference listings in the text, then list the citations by numbers. If you used an author-year reference listing in the text, then list the citations alphabetically and reverse indent the citations. Finally, skip some vertical space (6 points, for example) between each citation.
Glossary. Use a glossary to define terms for secondary readers. Arrange terms in alphabetical order. Use italics or underlines to key readers to terms that the glossary will define. Footnote the first italicized or underlined term in the text and key readers to the location of glossary, where that term and all future underlined or italicized terms will be defined. Use a reverse indent for each definition and treat each definition as a separate paragraph.
References. Use a reference page to list alphabetically the references of your report. If you used numbers for the reference listings in the text, then list the citations by numbers. If you used an author-year reference listing in the text, then list the citations alphabetically and reverse indent the citations. Finally, skip some vertical space (6 points, for example) between each citation.